Successful justice reform requires more than tweaking traditional rehabilitation. For many young, justice-involved males, the challenge is not regaining lost virtues or good behaviors but building virtuous skills and habits they never developed. This article makes a persuasive case for habilitation services (developing knowledge, skills and values not yet learned) over purely rehabilitation ones (restoring misdirected knowledge, skills or values). The rehabilitation model works well for middle-aged adults who have successful lives cut down by the disease of addiction or the healthy person healing from a devastating accident. We have become convinced that it does not apply broadly to prison diversion programs, especially for young criminals. By examining the 1st Step Male Diversion Program in Tulsa (1st Step) as a case study, we will illustrate how a habilitation approach can transform lives, speed desistance from crime, reduce recidivism and deliver strong returns on investment for communities and funders.[1]

REHABILITATION VS. HABILITATION: KEY DIFFERENCES

Rehabilitation traditionally means restoring someone to a previous, healthier state. In criminal justice, it assumes the offender once led a constructive life, experienced a crime-attracting event and only needed to return to their good life. However, this notion often does not apply to juvenile and young adult offenders who have never demonstrated a prosocial entry into adulthood. As Peter C. Kratcoski notes, “Many offenders never experience anything in their lives resembling satisfactory adjustment, and such persons are candidates for ‘habilitation’ rather than rehabilitation.”[2] In other words, there may be no prior positive condition to “restore.”[3]

Habilitation, by contrast, takes a developmental approach by helping individuals develop fundamental life skills and prosocial behaviors for the first time. It means fostering “familiarity with and adjustment to normal society” and helping them adopt values and habitual skills aligned with community norms and laws. Rather than assuming a base of life skills, habilitation programs begin by looking for the missed developmental milestones that resulted in a young person’s antisocial attitudes, values and behaviors. This means adopting an educational and developmental philosophy, teaching missed education, providing positive parenting experiences to repair dysfunctional family experiences, equipping career skills when unemployment has been the rule and, when ill with substance use disorder or mental illness, providing evidence-based treatment. This approach builds on the understanding of almost limitless neuroplasticity in a brain’s capability to learn, change and become culturally virtuous members of society. Habilitation provides the developmental learning missed during childhood and adolescence. In practice, habilitative services include education, vocational training, cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), mentoring, family-like residential prosocial living and other support services to help the client acquire capabilities and habits not previously developed.[4]

CONCEPTUAL AND PRACTICAL IMPACT

A rehabilitative approach might teach an offender job skills or provide therapy, assuming the client will return to being the law-abiding citizen they once were. This model works well for the once successful adult who acquires alcoholism or other substance abuse, and their lives become unmanageable. A habilitation approach recognizes that many juvenile or young adult offenders failed to develop basic life skills and learn from socially mature peers or adult role models. Habilitation retraces childhood and adolescent learning and prosocial behavior to build a foundation for adult success. Psychologists emphasize that for juvenile and young adult offenders to make lasting change, “habilitation, not rehabilitation, is essential.” Fortunately, the young brains of these offenders have sufficient neuroplasticity to supplant dysfunctional, deeply rooted thinking patterns with ones based on the values of a flourishing life. Habilitating experiences in a diversion program provide the social interactions that induce the neuronal growth in the brain to produce the mental control needed for them to think, feel and act as socially mature adults.[5]

WHY YOUNG OFFENDERS NEED HABILITATIVE DIVERSION

Justice-involved juvenile and young adult men, especially those caught in the “school-to-prison pipeline,” often come from environments that failed to teach them the cultural skills, rules and values that lead to a prosocial and flourishing adult life. Moreover, the younger the offender, the more likely their brain has enough neuroplasticity to mold in structure and function to think, feel and act within a culture for a successful life. On the other hand, “career criminals” are generally older individuals who have engaged in antisocial behavior for most of their lives; their brains have been shaped by the knowledge, attitude and actions of the correctional incarceration and the criminal justice culture, not the highly functional culture of flourishing adults. Having passed beyond the age of maximum brain neuroplasticity, these offenders find it more difficult to respond to habilitation strategies.[6]

Many juvenile and young adult offenders grew up in poverty or experienced childhood traumatic events or absent parental guidance. For example, in 1st Step, 70% of participants grew up without a father in their lives. Lacking positive male role models or stable support, these men never acquired the critical skills of emotional regulation, healthy decision-making or readiness for employment. As one participant candidly admitted before intervention, “I don’t care what you say. I’m going to sell drugs for the rest of my life. That is what I do, and it’s all I know how to do.” This stark statement underscores that crime was the only “skill” he had ever learned, a clear call for habilitation over rehabilitation.[7]

Habilitation diversion programs aim to break this cycle of learning a secure antisocial or criminal career by helping offenders develop the brain pathways that form the decision-making skills, values and habits for a productive prosocial life. Rather than sending a young man to prison, where his brain becomes programmed to a criminal livelihood, diversion to a habilitation program repairs the parenting, schooling, childhood and adolescent development he missed. Moreover, it keeps him in the community under structured support. He can learn job skills, complete his education and recover from addiction or trauma. He can develop the values and virtues of honesty, loyalty and responsibility while demonstrating accountability for his changing trajectory in life. Crucially, this approach treats the root causes of criminal behavior, such as failed life stage development, becoming addicted to substances or adopting nonvirtuous ideas and attitudes.

Research has shown that simply punishing or incarcerating individuals without helping to shape the neuronal connections for flourishing and virtuous socialization yields poor results. On the other hand, programs that provide a virtuous social environment with appreciation and guidance to achieve positive adult goals build competencies and life choices that significantly reduce recidivism rates. In short, habilitation corrects deficits in thinking, feeling and acting that often underlie a person’s unlawful deeds and prevents them from becoming a career criminal.[8]

From a funder’s perspective, the focus on root causes of criminal behavior means a smarter investment. Every dollar spent on habilitation can save many more dollars down the line by averting future crimes and costly incarcerations. It costs taxpayers considerably less to employ the internal motivating forces in the developing brains of a misguided young man than to imprison him for years. In Oklahoma, for instance, over 13,000 people are incarcerated for nonviolent offenses, one of the highest rates in the nation. Programs that divert even a fraction of these individuals away from incarceration and toward productive lives yield substantial social and economic returns. By keeping families whole and turning would-be career criminals into tax-paying citizens, habilitation-driven diversion creates a positive ripple effect that benefits public safety, the economy and community well-being.[9]

CASE STUDY: THE 1ST STEP MALE DIVERSION PROGRAM¹

One example of habilitation in action is 1st Step in Tulsa. Founded in 2016 by local justice leaders (two public defenders and a judge), it aims to stop the school-to-prison pipeline for young men through a formal program offering developmental guidance and opportunities needed to successfully enter emerging adulthood. 1st Step targets 18 to 30-year-old nonviolent male offenders with a high risk of reoffending and a need for habilitation skills. Eligible participants are court-diverted from incarceration into this intensive program under the supervision of a Tulsa County felony judge and professional staff. The mission is simple yet profound: “Keeping young men from prison by helping them build better lives.”[10]

Program Goals

The overarching goal is to break the cycle of recidivism by achieving the developmental tasks missed in childhood and adolescence that contributed to these men’s offenses. It explicitly seeks to “stop the school to prison pipeline in Oklahoma for young men by providing necessary survival skills and services, facilitating the need for career opportunities and instilling positive behavior change for lifetime success.” Rather than condemning young offenders to a life of shame, exclusion and labels of second-class status, the program believes in giving them the tools to become productive, law-abiding members of society. In the words of its founder, David Phillips, the aim is that graduates “will be tax-paying, sober, independent young men supporting their families.” This vision resonates strongly with funders’ interests: It speaks to economic self-sufficiency, family stability and public safety.[11]

Program Structure

The program is an 18 to 24-month, highly structured four-phase program. Participants live in a drug- and crime-free supervised residence. They must remain drug-free (verified by frequent random urine testing) over the entire program. They wear GPS ankle monitors to ensure avoidance of contact with criminal or addicted friends or family. In order to progress through higher phases, they must meet measurable milestones and demonstrate behavioral skills to program staff.[12]

Phase I: Stabilization. Focus on achieving a stable, scheduled, sober and crime-free living environment. Young men learn to avoid relapse into substance use or criminal behavior by identifying triggers and developing healthy coping skills. They learn that addiction and criminal thinking are dysfunctions of the brain that can be interrupted. During this phase, they may not work or drive. Their full attention is on recovery treatment and establishing a routine in a healthy living environment. Participants begin moral reconation therapy (MRT) using the How to Escape Your Prison curriculum to develop moral decision-making skills, emotional intelligence and plans for a flourishing life. Each week, they have one to two individual counseling sessions and several group process sessions. They engage in peer recovery classes and attend at least two 12-step or other community support group meetings to develop a virtuous approach to life. Although their schedules are full, they are encouraged to use their free time for personal self-improvement, socializing through sports and games and improving their physical conditioning by working out.

Phase II: Engagement. When they have completed the stability milestone, the men move to demonstrating personal responsibility for their actions with more freedom and opportunities to make better choices. They may obtain part-time employment and begin to drive if they have a valid license. If they need a license, they will learn to drive and obtain one. Those without a high school diploma enroll in GED courses with support for improving study habits and encouragement in completing the courses. Cognitive behavioral therapy, group processing and community support sessions continue.

Phase III: Maintenance. After completing the milestones for phase II, men begin to focus on demonstrating basic life skills, communication skills and emotional intelligence, parenting skills and sustained recovery from substance abuse and criminal behavior. They work on reunification with children and family, begin to implement the life goals planned in MRT and practice the spiritual principles for sustained recovery of forgiveness and making amends. Using a trauma-informed curriculum, participants delve deeper into the origin of their emotional dysfunction and develop skills for emotional coping, handling setbacks and understanding the triggers for unethical and criminal behavior or submitting to cravings for substances or addictive behaviors. During phase III, each young man is expected to maintain full-time employment, full-time school enrollment or part-time school and work. He will start moving toward independent living by transitioning out of the program house and paying his own rent. Regular counseling and support groups continue, alongside random drug tests to facilitate the maintenance of sobriety.

Phase IV: Transition. Focus on independent living and becoming a prosocial member of the community, espousing the culture for a flourishing life. In this final phase, participants solidify their life skills for independent, financially stable, sober and crime-free living. To successfully graduate, participants must demonstrate at least 90 days of stable independent living and full-time, living-wage employment. Weekly check-ins with their case managers and individual therapy sessions continue. Once staff and the supervising judge determine the young man has met all program requirements, he “has earned the right to graduate and rejoin society as a better husband, father, citizen, and man.”[13]

Throughout all phases, 1st Step provides a wraparound, holistic support system. Core services include individual and group cognitive behavioral therapy, substance abuse treatment, life skills classes (e.g., financial literacy, parenting and nutrition), education support and job training/placement.

Importantly, no violent or sexual offenders are admitted, ensuring the program’s community-based housing remains safe and focused on habilitation for nonviolent offenders with a high risk of recidivism and high life skills needs. By the end of the program, these men have not only begun their lifelong recovery from addiction and criminal thinking and behavior, but they have also typically earned a diploma or trade certification, secured employment, repaired relationships with family and became responsible fathers and citizens.[14]

CASE STUDY: OVERCOMING ADDICTION AND REBUILDING FAMILY

Background

One participant, a 24-year-old man, entered the 1st Step program following incarceration related to trafficking methamphetamine. Prior to his arrest, much of his life had been spent surviving on the streets, where selling drugs seemed like the only way forward. Having grown up without a father, he never learned what it meant to be one himself. Upon entering the program, he was separated from his young son and was uncertain about his future. Initially resistant to the structure and expectations of 1st Step, he seriously considered leaving shortly after release.

Intervention

Despite his hesitation, the participant remained in the 1st Step sober living environment and began to fully engage in habilitative programming. Through intensive counseling, group therapy and vocational readiness activities, he gradually confronted the root causes of his substance use and criminal behavior. He later reflected that the program not only gave him the tools to rebuild his own life but also restored him to his family: “1st Step gave my mother her son back, my grandparents their grandson back, and my children their father.”

Outcomes

During his time in the program, the participant secured stable employment with a local manufacturing company, where he has remained for four years. He reestablished a relationship with his biological son, regained custody and demonstrated a renewed commitment to fatherhood. While still enrolled, he married and created a supportive family environment, later adopting his wife’s daughter and forming a blended family. Since graduating in August 2021, he has maintained sobriety, housing and long-term employment. Beyond his personal achievements, he now also serves on the 1st Step program’s Board of Directors and mentors younger men currently enrolled. His story exemplifies the goals of habilitation: long-term recovery, family stability, economic self-sufficiency and meaningful community leadership.[15]

EVIDENCE OF IMPACT AND EFFECTIVENESS

1st Step has compiled an impressive record demonstrating the power of its habilitation approach. Outcome metrics show that participants rarely return to crime. From 2017 to 2025, graduates had a 92% success rate, meaning that only 8% of graduates reoffended or returned to incarceration, while saving Oklahoma taxpayers more than an estimated $3.3 million in incarceration costs. As of its eighth anniversary, the program roughly maintains the 92% success rate in keeping men out of prison. This is an extraordinary achievement in a state with historically high recidivism rates. Diverting these individuals from prison not only spares the public the direct costs of incarceration but also the indirect costs of future crimes and lost taxes from productive citizens.[16]

Beyond numbers, the human impact is compelling. Young men who once cycled through jails or struggled with addiction are now gainfully employed, present for their families and contributing to their communities. Over half of the participants become responsible family men, with 50% of current enrollees supporting a wife and children as they go through the program. This indicates the program’s ripple effect in breaking intergenerational cycles of incarceration, criminality and addiction. Children who might have lost their fathers to prison are instead growing up with them at home. Participants themselves attest to the life-changing effects: “I have learned to live, not just survive,” said one young father who went from addiction and crime to raising his daughter and holding a full-time job. Another graduate described it as “a blessing ... a great program to be in, as it has a lot of people who not only want to help but care for you and [help] you be a better person.” Such testimonials speak to more than surface-level improvements; they indicate profound shifts in mindset and identity. Men who once saw themselves as becoming lifelong criminals now see themselves as providers, mentors and productive citizens. As one program graduate reflected, “When you complete this program, you have more to lose than you’ve ever had in your whole entire life.” This poignant statement highlights the core of habilitation – these men have built a life worth protecting, filled with responsibilities and hope, where before there was little to lose.[17]

It is also notable that it was modeled after a successful diversion program for women (Tulsa’s Women in Recovery). It filled a critical gap for males. Each additional participant represents a potential life redirected from prison to productivity. For funders, scaling such a program means amplifying the impact: More families kept intact, younger people in the workforce and fewer future victims of crime.

Given the program’s strong record of accomplishment, any investment in its expansion or replication is backed by evidence-based practices (e.g., cognitive behavioral therapy, peer support and vocational training are all proven recidivism reducers) and documented success.[18]

CONCLUSION: A CALL TO INVEST IN HABILITATIVE JUSTICE

The experience shows that habilitative approaches in diversion programs can be transformative. When we treat young offenders not as lost causes to be punished but as individuals who, with guidance, can learn to thrive, the results are remarkable. They achieve what rehabilitation alone often cannot: a fundamental change in life’s trajectory. The difference is clear. Rehabilitation might give an offender a toolbox, but habilitation teaches him how to build an entirely new house for his future life. For participants, this means the difference between a revolving door in and out of prison and a one-way exit toward stability and success.[19]

From a funder’s perspective, supporting habilitation diversion programs is a high-impact investment. It yields measurable outcomes, like lower recidivism rates and cost savings, and immeasurable ones, like safer neighborhoods and brighter futures for families. Every success story, every young man who turns from crime to community, validates the approach and promises compounded benefits as he influences peers and future generations. By embracing habilitation in justice interventions, we shift resources from reacting to crime to preventing it through catching up on personal development. This proactive strategy not only changes lives one by one but also strengthens society as a whole.

In summary, the efficacy and importance of habilitation approaches cannot be overstated. 1st Step exemplifies how comprehensive support, accountability and skill-building can turn at-risk youth and emerging adults into productive citizens. It is a model that deserves expansion and replication. As stakeholders and funders, investing in these programs is an investment in safer communities and human potential. The message is clear: To truly break the cycle of crime, we must fund the building of new foundations and not just repair old walls. Habilitation offers that first step, one that can lead a young man, and those around him, toward a better tomorrow.[20]

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
David C. Phillips III is the executive director and founder of the 1st Step Male Diversion Program, a nonprofit dedicated to keeping young men out of prison by helping them build stable, flourishing lives. He earned a bachelor’s degree from the University of Pittsburgh and a J.D. from the OU College of Law.

 

 

 

 

 

Dr. F. Daniel Duffy is the clinical director for the 1st Step program. He is a retired physician professor of internal medicine and medical informatics from the OU School of Community Medicine. In addition to advising staff on clinical care of clients, he facilitates moral reconation therapy and designed and teaches the program's parenting course. He has guided the implementation of the positive psychology and habilitation process for the program.

 

 

 

 

 

Lindy Myers, deputy chief director at 1st Step Male Diversion Program, is a licensed behavioral health case manager. She graduated with a bachelor’s degree in business and minor in human resources and a master's degree in sociology.  Ms. Myers’ personal journey of overcoming addiction after graduating from Women in Recovery in 2020 fuels her passion for supporting program participants. At 1st Step, she emphasizes habilitation, guiding individuals in rebuilding their lives.

 

 

 

 

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ENDNOTES

[1] 1st Step Male Diversion Program. (n.d.). Program overview and outcomes. (Internal program documents and web profile).

[2] P.C. Kratcoski, (2017), Correctional Counseling and Treatment (6th ed.), Springer International Publishing, p. 4.

[3] P.C. Kratcoski, (2017), Correctional Counseling and Treatment (6th ed.), Springer International Publishing.

[4] S.E. Samenow, (2016), Psychology Today, “Habilitation, Not Rehabilitation.” https://bit.ly/49nF2E6.

[5] Id.

[6] 1st Step Male Diversion Program. (n.d.). Program overview and outcomes. (Internal program documents and web profile).

[7] KJRH News (2023). “1st Step Male Diversion Program transforms lives of justice-involved men.” Retrieved from www.kjrh.com.

[8] P.C. Kratcoski, (2017), Correctional Counseling and Treatment (6th ed.), Springer International Publishing, and S.E. Samenow, Psychology Today (2016), “Habilitation, Not Rehabilitation.”

[9] 1st Step Male Diversion Program, (n.d.). Program overview and outcomes. (Internal program documents and web profile).

[10] Id.

[11] Id.

[12] Id.

[13] Id.

[14] Id.

[15] Id.

[16] Id.

[17] Id.

[18] Id.

[19] Id.

[20] Id.